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Applied Physics Reviews — 1991


High power ultrafast excimer lasers

Iain A. McIntyre and Charles K. Rhodes

J. Appl. Phys. 69, R1 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.347665 (19 pages)

Online Publication Date: 12 December 2006

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Rare‐gas–halide excimer lasers are suitable for the production of extremely high peak brightness output in the ultraviolet. The basic properties of these systems are examined and the various techniques employed to produce high power (multiterawatt) operation are described. A specific system using short‐pulse injection is examined and its ability to focus to intensities above ∼1019 W cm−2 is discussed. Various applications of such high intensity subpicosecond light sources are also considered.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation

Plasma points and radiative collapse in vacuum sparks

K. N. Koshelev and N. R. Pereira

J. Appl. Phys. 69, R21 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.347551 (24 pages)

Online Publication Date: 12 December 2006

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This review discusses the intense x‐ray emitting regions, called plasma points, that appear in low‐inductance vacuum sparks and other high‐current discharges. Accurate x‐ray spectroscopy indicates the existence of two types of plasma points with different plasma parameters. One type is extremely small (∼microns), dense (∼1023/cm3), and hot (≳1 keV), while the second type is an order of magnitude less extreme. A dynamic model (Vikhrev 1982a) based on radiation cooling with axial outflow of plasma predicts a radiative collapse that is consistent with many features of the plasma points.
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52.80.Vp Discharge in vacuum
52.50.Lp Plasma production and heating by shock waves and compression

Heterointerfaces in quantum wells and epitaxial growth processes: Evaluation by luminescence techniques

M. A. Herman, D. Bimberg, and J. Christen

J. Appl. Phys. 70, R1 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.349613 (52 pages)

Online Publication Date: 12 December 2006

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This paper presents a review devoted to the problem of how optical and structural properties of quantum‐well heterostructures (QWH) can be correlated in detail, and how these properties may be connected with the parameters of the epitaxial growth process. It demonstrates how luminescence techniques, mainly photoluminescence (PL) and cathodoluminescence imaging (CLI), may be used for evaluation of the structural disorder on the atomic scale, which occurs at the growth surfaces creating the interfaces of the QWH. The physics of the excitonic luminescence in QWH (theory and experiment) is presented in detail in the first part of the review. This is followed by a comprehensive discussion of experimental aspects (hardware and software) of the luminescence techniques, as applied for studying QWH grown by molecular‐beam epitaxy (MBE) and metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE). The specific features of both the epitaxial growth techniques, when used for growing QWH are presented in the next part of this review. Finally, the possibilities of application of PL and CLI to studies on growth of QWH by MBE and MOVPE are demonstrated on a couple of selected examples. The review concludes with a short discussion on possible interpretation mistakes which may occur when one applies the CLI to studies of interfaces in QWH without taking into account the basic parameters of the excitonic luminescence lines creating the CL images of the relevant interfaces.
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78.66.Fd III-V semiconductors
78.66.Hf II-VI semiconductors
68.35.B- Structure of clean surfaces (and surface reconstruction)
81.15.Hi Molecular, atomic, ion, and chemical beam epitaxy
81.15.Kk Vapor phase epitaxy; growth from vapor phase

Stress‐related problems in silicon technology

S. M. Hu

J. Appl. Phys. 70, R53 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.349282 (28 pages)

Online Publication Date: 12 December 2006

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The silicon integrated‐circuits chip is built by contiguously embedding, butting, and overlaying structural elements of a large variety of materials of different elastic and thermal properties. Stress develops in the thermal cycling of the chip. Furthermore, many structural elements such as CVD (chemical vapor deposition) silicon nitride, silicon dioxide, polycrystalline silicon, etc., by virtue of their formation processes, exhibit intrinsic stresses. Large localized stresses are induced in the silicon substrate near the edges and corners of such structural elements. Oxidation of nonplanar silicon surfaces produces another kind of stress that can be very damaging, especially at low oxidation temperatures. Mismatch of atomic sizes between dopants and the silicon, and heteroepitaxy produce another class of strain that can lead to the formation of misfit dislocations. Here we review the achievements to date in understanding and modeling these diverse stress problems.
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85.40.Hp Lithography, masks and pattern transfer
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments
81.40.Jj Elasticity and anelasticity, stress-strain relations
62.20.-x Mechanical properties of solids

CuInSe2 for photovoltaic applications

A. Rockett and R. W. Birkmire

J. Appl. Phys. 70, R81 (1991); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.349175 (17 pages)

Online Publication Date: 12 December 2006

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The properties and most successful methods for producing CuInSe2 films for solar‐cell applications are reviewed and the production, analysis, and performance of photovoltaic devices based on CuInSe2 are discussed. The most successful methods for depositing thin CuInSe2 films for high‐efficiency solar cells are three‐source elemental evaporation and selenization of Cu/In layers in H2Se atmospheres. Devices based on CuInSe2 have achieved the highest conversion efficiencies for any nonepitaxial thin‐film solar cell, 14.1% for a small cell and 10.4% (aperture efficiency) for a 3916‐cm2 (4 sq. ft) device. Furthermore, high‐efficiency devices have been produced by several groups and have shown no evidence of degradation of performance with time. The internal quantum efficiency is remarkably close to 100%, although various losses prevent making use of all of the generated carriers. The high performance results, in part, from the very‐high‐absorption coefficient of CuInSe2, which is of the order of 105 cm−1 for photons with energies slightly above 1 eV. Models of the operation of CuInSe2/CdS heterojunctions have begun to explain the processes limiting the device performance. The success of the models is based, in part, on the large amount of data which has accumulated on CuInSe2 in spite of the relatively short time it has been extensively studied.
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84.60.Jt Photoelectric conversion
72.40.+w Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
73.50.Pz Photoconduction and photovoltaic effects
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