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Applied Physics Reviews — 1999

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Stopping of energetic light ions in elemental matter

J. F. Ziegler

J. Appl. Phys. 85, 1249 (1999); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.369844 (24 pages)

Online Publication Date: 12 December 2006

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The formalism for calculating the stopping of energetic light ions (H, He, and Li) at energies above 1 MeV/u, has advanced to the point that stopping powers may now be calculated with an accuracy of a few percent for all elemental materials. Although the subject has been of interest for a century, only recently have the final required corrections been understood and evaluated. The theory of energetic ion stopping is reviewed with emphasis on those aspects that pertain to the calculation of accurate stopping powers. © 1999 American Institute of Physics.
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61.80.Jh Ion radiation effects
01.30.Rr Surveys and tutorial papers; resource letters
61.85.+p Channeling phenomena (blocking, energy loss, etc.)
01.65.+g History of science
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Semi-insulating semiconductor heterostructures: Optoelectronic properties and applications

David D. Nolte

J. Appl. Phys. 85, 6259 (1999); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.370284 (31 pages)

Online Publication Date: 12 December 2006

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This review covers a spectrum of optoelectronic properties of and uses for semi-insulating semiconductor heterostructures and thin films, including epilayers and quantum wells. Compensation by doping, implantation, and nonstoichiometric growth are described in terms of the properties of point defects and Fermi level stabilization and pinning. The principal optical and optoelectronic properties of semi-insulating epilayers and heterostructures, such as excitonic electroabsorption of quantum-confined excitons, are described, in addition to optical absorption by metallic or semimetallic precipitates in these layers. Low-temperature grown quantum wells that have an arsenic-rich nonstoichiometry and a supersaturated concentration of grown-in vacancies are discussed. These heterostructures experience transient enhanced diffusion and superlattice disordering. The review discusses the performance of optoelectronic heterostructures and microcavities that contain semi-insulating layers, such as buried heterostructure stripe lasers, vertical cavity surface emitting lasers, and optical electroabsorption modulators. Short time-scale applications arise from the ultrashort carrier lifetimes in semi-insulating materials, such as in photoconductors for terahertz generation, and in saturable absorbers for mode-locking solid state lasers. This review also comprehensively describes the properties and applications of photorefractive heterostructures. The low dark-carrier concentrations of semi-insulating heterostructures make these materials highly sensitive as dynamic holographic thin films that are useful for adaptive optics applications. The high mobilities of free carriers in photorefractive heterostructures produce fast dielectric relaxation rates that allow light-induced space-charge gratings to adapt to rapidly varying optical fringe patterns, canceling out environmental noise during interferometric detection in laser-based ultrasound, and in optical coherence tomography. They are also the functional layers in high-sensitivity dynamic holographic materials that replace static holograms in Fourier imaging systems and in experimental Tbit/s optical systems. Semi-insulating heterostructures and their applications have attained a degree of maturity, but many critical materials science issues remain unexplored. © 1999 American Institute of Physics.
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42.70.Nq Other nonlinear optical materials; photorefractive and semiconductor materials
73.21.-b Electron states and collective excitations in multilayers, quantum wells, mesoscopic, and nanoscale systems
78.66.-w Optical properties of specific thin films
01.30.Rr Surveys and tutorial papers; resource letters
73.40.Lq Other semiconductor-to-semiconductor contacts, p-n junctions, and heterojunctions
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters
78.20.Jq Electro-optical effects
71.35.-y Excitons and related phenomena
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.60.Da Resonators, cavities, amplifiers, arrays, and rings
68.65.-k Low-dimensional, mesoscopic, nanoscale and other related systems: structure and nonelectronic properties
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
42.40.-i Holography

A comprehensive thermodynamic analysis of native point defect and dopant solubilities in gallium arsenide

D. T. J. Hurle

J. Appl. Phys. 85, 6957 (1999); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.370506 (66 pages)

Online Publication Date: 12 December 2006

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A detailed analysis of the role of charged native point defects in controlling the solubility of electrically active dopants in gallium arsenide is presented. The key roles of (a) positively charged arsenic vacancies (VAs+) in determining the doping range over which the solubility curve is linear and (b) multiply negative charged gallium vacancies (VGam−) determining annealing and diffusion behavior in n+ material are demonstrated. An equilibrium thermodynamic model based on these concepts is shown to accurately describe the doping behavior of Te, Zn, Sn, Ge, Si, and C and the formation and annealing of the deep level denoted EL2 (assumed to be the arsenic antisite defect AsGa) in melt- and solution-grown crystals. The model provides a much more comprehensive and accurate description of dopant solubility than the widely cited Schottky barrier model of bulk nonequilibrium dopant incorporation. It is unambiguously shown that partial autocompensation of donor dopants by the donor–gallium vacancy acceptor complex occurs for both group IV and group VI donor dopants. The deduced concentrations of arsenic vacancies grown into the crystal during melt growth are shown to be in excellent agreement with values determined by titration and by density/lattice parameter measurements. The obtained data are used to plot the Ga–As solidus. Due to the presence of charged native point defect species (notably, VAs+), the free-carrier concentration at high temperatures is greater than the intrinsic concentration. The calculated concentration is shown to be in excellent agreement with published experimental data. The utility of an equilibrium thermodynamic model in seeking an understanding of doping behavior under conditions of high supersaturation, such as occur with organometallic vapor phase epitaxy and molecular beam epitaxy, is demonstrated. Finally, some suggestions are made as to the likely native point defect equilibria in indium phosphide. © 1999 American Institute of Physics.
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61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters
71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
65.20.-w Thermal properties of liquids
65.40.gd Entropy
64.75.-g Phase equilibria
81.40.Ef Cold working, work hardening; annealing, post-deformation annealing, quenching, tempering recovery, and crystallization
81.40.Gh Other heat and thermomechanical treatments
66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
61.72.Yx Interaction between different crystal defects; gettering effect
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GaN: Processing, defects, and devices

S. J. Pearton, J. C. Zolper, R. J. Shul, and F. Ren

J. Appl. Phys. 86, 1 (1999); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.371145 (78 pages)

Online Publication Date: 12 December 2006

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The role of extended and point defects, and key impurities such as C, O, and H, on the electrical and optical properties of GaN is reviewed. Recent progress in the development of high reliability contacts, thermal processing, dry and wet etching techniques, implantation doping and isolation, and gate insulator technology is detailed. Finally, the performance of GaN-based electronic and photonic devices such as field effect transistors, UV detectors, laser diodes, and light-emitting diodes is covered, along with the influence of process-induced or grown-in defects and impurities on the device physics. © 1999 American Institute of Physics.
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71.55.Eq III-V semiconductors
72.80.Ey III-V and II-VI semiconductors
73.61.Ey III-V semiconductors
01.30.Rr Surveys and tutorial papers; resource letters
71.20.Nr Semiconductor compounds
61.72.J- Point defects and defect clusters
68.55.Ln Defects and impurities: doping, implantation, distribution, concentration, etc.
61.72.uj III-V and II-VI semiconductors
85.40.Ry Impurity doping, diffusion and ion implantation technology
81.65.Cf Surface cleaning, etching, patterning
85.30.Tv Field effect devices
85.60.Gz Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)
85.60.Jb Light-emitting devices
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